Abstrakt
Nomadism was widely perceived as a developmental problem by state administrators in the XX century, in capitalist as well as socialist countries. This article examines the strategies and effects of sedentarization policies in the forest (taiga) zone of the Soviet Union in the 1940s and 1950s. The different aspects of the state’s sedentarization campaign – administrative restructuring, collectivization, and the development of new industrial branches – are illuminated through examples of official documents and responses by Evenki reindeer nomads who were affected by this policy. Responses include reindeer nomads’ comments on how their spatial practices were subject to state-instigated change. Building on Gail Fondahl’s concept of “socialist enclosure”, the author develops the concept of “cognitive enclosure” to broach the very palpable consequences of sedentarisation on people’s perception of space and skills of moving. Examples are: learning to live in a house, unlearning certain modes of travelling, and navigating new environments. Sources used for this article comprise archival material from Central Siberia, ethnographies by scholars who have worked in this and adjacent areas, and the author’s own field observations from different regions. J
Bibliografia
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F o r s y t h J a m e s 1992, A History of the Peoples of Siberia. Russia’s North Asian Colony, 1581–1990,
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-Universität Münster, Institut für Geographie, Münster.
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Komi of Northern Russia, LIT, Münster.
– 2006, Experience, movement and mobility. Komi reindeer herders’ perception of the environ-
ment, Nomadic Peoples, vol. 10, no. 2, s. 123–141
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I s t o m i n K i r i l l V., D w y e r M a r k J. [w druku] Reindeer herders’ thinking, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd., Surrey.
L e v i n M a k s i m G., P o t a p o v L e o n i d P. (red.) 1956, Narody Sibiri, Izdatel’stvo Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Moskva–Leningrad.
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L i p i ń s k i Wo j c i e c h 2003, Ewenkowie w Jakucji, Sprawy Narodowościowe, t. 22, s. 153–160.
M a z z u l l o N u c c i o 2005, Perception, tradition and environment among Sámi People in Northeastern
Finland, rozprawa doktorska, University of Manchester.
N. N. 1941, Suglan (osedanie kolhozov), Èvenkijskaâ Novaâ Žizn’, wydanie specjalne 1941 roku, s. 23.
P o v o r o z n y u k O l g a 2007, Reindeer herders and hunters of eastern Siberia. Life of Kalar Evenks,
[w:] International handbook of research on indigenous entrepreneurship, red. L.P.Dana, R.B.Anderson, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, s. 137–154.
S a f o n o v a Ta t i a n a, S á n t h a I s t v á n 2011, Mapping Evenki Land. The study of mobility
patterns in eastern Siberia, Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore, vol. 49, no. 3, s. 71–96.
[http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol49/evenki.pdf].
S e r g e e v M a r k 1948, Die kleinen Völker des Nordens in der Epoche des Sozialismus. Sowjetwissenschaft, vol. 1948, no. 4, s. 29–74.
S i m o n o v a Ve r o n i k a V. 2007, TransSib. Put‘ v žizni, žizn‘ v puti, Sociologičeskie issledovaniâ,
t. 2007(5), s. 103–113.
S i r i n a A n n a 1995, Katangskie Èvenki v XX v. Rasselenie, organizaciâ žiznedeâtel’nosti, Institut
ètnologii i antropologii Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk, Moskva.
– 2006, Katanga Evenkis of the twentieth century and the ordering of their life-world, Northern
hunter-gatherer research series, vol. 2, Canadian Circumpolar Institute Press, Edmonton.
S l e z k i n e Yu r i 1994, Arctic mirrors. Russia and the small peoples of the North, Cornell University
Press, Ithaca.
S t a m m l e r F l o r i a n M. 2009, Mobile phone revolution in the tundra? Technological change among
Russian reindeer nomads, Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore, vol. 41, s. 47–78.
S t a r r e t t G r e g o r y 1995, The hexis of interpretation. Islam and the body in the Egyptian popular
school, American Ethnologist, vol. 22, no. 49, s. 953–969.
Ta r a s e n k o v G e o r g i j N. 1930, Turuhanskij krai. Èkonomičeskij obzor s istoričeskim očerkom,
Izdatel’stvo Turuhanskogo RIKa, Krasnoârsk.
Tu g o l u k o v V l a d i l e n A. 1985, Tungusy (èvenki i èveny) srednej i zapadnoj Sibiri, Nauka, Moskva.
Tu r o v M i h a i l G. 1990, Hozâjstvo èvenkov taëžnoj zony Srednej Sibiri v konce XIX-načale XX v.
Principy osvoeniâ ugodij, Izdatel’stvo Irkutskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, Irkutsk.
– 2010, Evenki Economy in the Central Siberian Taiga at the Turn of the twentieth Century: Prin-
ciples of Land Use, Northern Hunter-Gatherer Research Series, vol. 5, Canadian Circumpolar
Institute Press, Edmonton.
U r r y J o h n 2007, Mobilities, Polity Press, Cambridge.
U v a č a n Va s i l i j N. 1984, Gody, ravnye vekam. Stroitel’stvo socializma na Sovetskom Severe, Mysl’,
Moskva.
Va s i l e v i č G l a f i r a M. 1969, Èvenki. Istoriko-ètnografičeskie očerki (XVIII–XIX v.), Nauka, Leningradskoe otdelenie, Leningrad.
V i t e b s k y P i e r s 2005, Reindeer people. Living with animals and spirits in Siberia, Harper Collins,
London.
in der Sowjetunion, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main.
A m e l’ k i n A n a t o l i i A. 1995, Narty, Èvenkijskij okružnoj institut usoveršenstvovaniâ učitelej,
Tura.
A n d e r s o n D a v i d G. 1992, Property rights and civil society in Siberia. An examination of the
social movements of the Zabaikal‘skie Evenki, Praxis International, vol. 12, no. 1, s. 83–105.
2000, Identity and ecology in arctic Siberia. The number one reindeer brigade, Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
– 2011, The Polar Census and the architecture of enumeration, [w:] The 1926/27 Soviet Polar
Census Expeditions, red. D.G.Anderson, Berghahn, New York, s. 1–32.
A n d e r s o n D a v i d G., C a m p b e l l C r a i g 2009, Picturing Central Siberia. The digitization
and analysis of early twentieth-century Central Siberian photographic collections, Sibirica, vol. 8,
no. 2, s. 1–42.
A p o r t a C l a u d i o 2004, Routes, trails and tracks. Trail breaking among the Inuit of Igloolik, Études/
Inuit/Studies, vol. 28, no. 2, s. 9–38.
A r g o u n o v a - L o w Ta t i a n a 2012, Narrating the road, Landscape Research, vol. 37, no. 2,
s. 191–206.
B l o c h A l e x i a 2004, Red ties and residential school. Indigenous Siberians in a post-soviet state, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
B o u r d i e u P i e r r e 1997, Outline of a theory of practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[Przekład Polski: Bourdieu Pierre 2007, Szkic Teorii Praktyki, tłum. W.Kroker, Wydawnictwo
Marek Derewiecki, Kęty].
B r a n d i š a u s k a s D o n a t a s 2012, Making a home in the taiga. Movements, paths and signs among
Orochen-Evenki hunters and herders of Zabaikal Krai (South East Siberia), Journal of Ethnology
and Folkloristics, vol. 6, no. 1, s. 9–25.
– 2016, Leaving footprints in the taiga. Luck, spirits and ambivalence among the Siberian Orochen
reindeer herders and hunters, Berghahn, New York.
C a m p b e l l C r a i g 2003, Contrails of globalization and the view from the ground. An essay on
isolation in east-central Siberia, Polar Geography, vol. 27, no. 2, s. 97–120.
– b.d., Mobilization and isolation as outcomes of a dysfunctional Soviet landscape, wystąpienie na
Annual Young Researchers Conference “Russia in Global Context: Peoples, Environments, Poli-
cies” w Havighurst Center for Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies, Oxford, Ohio, 7–9 November 2003
[http://miamioh.edu/cas/_files/documents/havighurst/2003/campbell.pdf]
C z a p l i c k a M a r i a 2013 [1916], Mój rok na Syberii, tłum. H. Kossak-Nowocień, Muzeum Etnograficzne im. Marii Znamierowskiej-Prüfferowej, Toruń.
D a w s o n P e t e r C. 2003a, Analysing the effects of spatial configuration on human movement and
social interaction in Canadian Arctic communities, Proceedings of the 4th International Space
Syntax Symposium, 37.1–37.14.
[http://www.spacesyntax.net/symposia-archive/SSS4/fullpapers/37DawsonAnlypaper.pdf]
– 2003b, Examining the impact of Euro-Canadian architecture on Inuit families living in Arctic
Canada, Proceedings of the 4th International Space Syntax Symposium, 21.1–21.16.
[http://www.spacesyntax.net/symposia-archive/SSS4/fullpapers/21Dawsonpaper1.pdf].
D o n a h o e B r i a n 2006, Who owns the taiga? Inclusive vs. exclusive senses of property among the
Tozhu and Tofalar, Sibirica, vol. 5, no. 1, s. 87–116.
D u n c a n J o h n 2010, How intelligence happens, Yale University Press, New Haven CT.
F o n d a h l G a i l 1998, Gaining ground? Evenkis, land and reform in Southeastern Siberia, Allyn and
Bacon, Boston.
F o r s y t h J a m e s 1992, A History of the Peoples of Siberia. Russia’s North Asian Colony, 1581–1990,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
H a b e c k J. O t t o 1998, Seßhaftwerdung und Seßhaftmachung sibirischer Rentiernomaden. Siedlungsstruktur und Siedlungsgeschichte im Ewenkischen Autonomen Kreis, Berichte aus dem Arbeitsgebiet Entwicklungsforschung am Institut für Geographie Münster, vol. 30, Westfälische Wilhelms-
-Universität Münster, Institut für Geographie, Münster.
– 2005, What it means to be a herdsman. The practice and image of reindeer husbandry among the
Komi of Northern Russia, LIT, Münster.
– 2006, Experience, movement and mobility. Komi reindeer herders’ perception of the environ-
ment, Nomadic Peoples, vol. 10, no. 2, s. 123–141
H e w e s G o r d o n W. 1955, World distribution of certain postural habits, American Anthropologist,
vol. 57, no. 2, s. 231–244.
– 1957, The anthropology of posture, Scientific American, vol. 196, no. 2, s. 122–132.
– 1966, The domain posture, Anthropological Linguistics, vol. 8, no. 8, s. 106–112.
H u m p h r e y [Ha m f r i ] C a r o l i n e 2014, Izmenenie značimosti udalennosti v sovremennoj Rossii,
Ètnografičeskoe obozrenie, vol. 2014, no. 3, s. 8–24.
I n g o l d T i m 2011, Being alive. Essays on movement, knowledge and description, Routledge, London.
I s t o m i n K i r i l l V., D w y e r M a r k J. [w druku] Reindeer herders’ thinking, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd., Surrey.
L e v i n M a k s i m G., P o t a p o v L e o n i d P. (red.) 1956, Narody Sibiri, Izdatel’stvo Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Moskva–Leningrad.
– 1964, The Peoples of Siberia, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
L i p i ń s k i Wo j c i e c h 2003, Ewenkowie w Jakucji, Sprawy Narodowościowe, t. 22, s. 153–160.
M a z z u l l o N u c c i o 2005, Perception, tradition and environment among Sámi People in Northeastern
Finland, rozprawa doktorska, University of Manchester.
N. N. 1941, Suglan (osedanie kolhozov), Èvenkijskaâ Novaâ Žizn’, wydanie specjalne 1941 roku, s. 23.
P o v o r o z n y u k O l g a 2007, Reindeer herders and hunters of eastern Siberia. Life of Kalar Evenks,
[w:] International handbook of research on indigenous entrepreneurship, red. L.P.Dana, R.B.Anderson, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, s. 137–154.
S a f o n o v a Ta t i a n a, S á n t h a I s t v á n 2011, Mapping Evenki Land. The study of mobility
patterns in eastern Siberia, Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore, vol. 49, no. 3, s. 71–96.
[http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol49/evenki.pdf].
S e r g e e v M a r k 1948, Die kleinen Völker des Nordens in der Epoche des Sozialismus. Sowjetwissenschaft, vol. 1948, no. 4, s. 29–74.
S i m o n o v a Ve r o n i k a V. 2007, TransSib. Put‘ v žizni, žizn‘ v puti, Sociologičeskie issledovaniâ,
t. 2007(5), s. 103–113.
S i r i n a A n n a 1995, Katangskie Èvenki v XX v. Rasselenie, organizaciâ žiznedeâtel’nosti, Institut
ètnologii i antropologii Rossijskoj Akademii Nauk, Moskva.
– 2006, Katanga Evenkis of the twentieth century and the ordering of their life-world, Northern
hunter-gatherer research series, vol. 2, Canadian Circumpolar Institute Press, Edmonton.
S l e z k i n e Yu r i 1994, Arctic mirrors. Russia and the small peoples of the North, Cornell University
Press, Ithaca.
S t a m m l e r F l o r i a n M. 2009, Mobile phone revolution in the tundra? Technological change among
Russian reindeer nomads, Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore, vol. 41, s. 47–78.
S t a r r e t t G r e g o r y 1995, The hexis of interpretation. Islam and the body in the Egyptian popular
school, American Ethnologist, vol. 22, no. 49, s. 953–969.
Ta r a s e n k o v G e o r g i j N. 1930, Turuhanskij krai. Èkonomičeskij obzor s istoričeskim očerkom,
Izdatel’stvo Turuhanskogo RIKa, Krasnoârsk.
Tu g o l u k o v V l a d i l e n A. 1985, Tungusy (èvenki i èveny) srednej i zapadnoj Sibiri, Nauka, Moskva.
Tu r o v M i h a i l G. 1990, Hozâjstvo èvenkov taëžnoj zony Srednej Sibiri v konce XIX-načale XX v.
Principy osvoeniâ ugodij, Izdatel’stvo Irkutskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, Irkutsk.
– 2010, Evenki Economy in the Central Siberian Taiga at the Turn of the twentieth Century: Prin-
ciples of Land Use, Northern Hunter-Gatherer Research Series, vol. 5, Canadian Circumpolar
Institute Press, Edmonton.
U r r y J o h n 2007, Mobilities, Polity Press, Cambridge.
U v a č a n Va s i l i j N. 1984, Gody, ravnye vekam. Stroitel’stvo socializma na Sovetskom Severe, Mysl’,
Moskva.
Va s i l e v i č G l a f i r a M. 1969, Èvenki. Istoriko-ètnografičeskie očerki (XVIII–XIX v.), Nauka, Leningradskoe otdelenie, Leningrad.
V i t e b s k y P i e r s 2005, Reindeer people. Living with animals and spirits in Siberia, Harper Collins,
London.